The Basics: Capitalization

All writers should have a thorough understanding of basic writing rules. Depending on the style of writing you are working with, you may be able to break some of these rules some of the time. However, if you are going to choose to break some established rules, you must have a good reason for doing so. With that being said, this article is an overview of the rules for capitalization.

Proper capitalization is an important part of writing. It helps your reader to understand your writing more clearly. When writing professionally, you don't get to follow the same rules as you might when sending text messages, emails to friends, or twitter messages where the rules can be a little more lax. Knowing when to capitalize will make your writing look better and easier to read. In addition, it will also help you make a good impression on your reader, something which you will want to do all of the time.

All of these rules are universally accepted within English language usage. However, some of these rules have variances depending on the citation style of writing being employed. Those exceptions will be noted here. I would advise you to check an authoritative guide for the particular citation style you will be using to verify the specifics regarding capitalization for such exceptions.

For the examples below, I will list the rule, and then I will provide an example. In each example, I will use bold text to demonstrate the specific words to which the rule applies.

All of the names I am using in these examples are fictitious; any resemblance to real people is unintended.

RULES FOR PROPER CAPITALIZATION
Always capitalize the first letter of a sentence.	The first letter of this sentence is capitalized.
In English, the pronoun "I" is always capitalized.	Wherever I go, the sun is shining on me.
All proper nouns should be capitalized. This includes the first letter of each part of a person's name, names of specific locations, and abbreviations used in the names of specific locations.	I am going to meet John Smith for lunch. He lives on Milk Street in Denver, Colorado. This is quite a distance from Mount Everest. It is also nowhere near Chauncy Rd.
In English, days of the week and months are considered proper nouns, and should thus be capitalized.	I am going to the store on Sunday afternoon. In the United States of America, the fourth of July is celebrated as a national holiday commemorating Independence Day, the day when the colonists declared their freedom from the British.
If a location is commonly known by an abbreviation where one letter represents one word of that abbreviation, all letters in the abbreviation are capitalized.	The U.S.A. won the gold medal in the high jump event. Dubai is the capital of the U.A.E.
However, if it is not a location with a specific name, there is no need to capitalize it.	I decided to go to the lake for a swim.
If an organization or agency name is abbreviated, the abbreviated name should have all major words capitalized. Generally speaking, minor words are not included in such abbreviations.	The E.P.A. is an agency in the United States which has the job of regulating, maintaining, and protecting the natural environment from human interference or destruction. The I.M.F. and the World Bank lend out money to developing nations to help bolster their economies.
In the U.S.A., two letter state abbreviations have both letters capitalized. Also, there is no period to represent that it is an abbreviation. The same is true for Canadian provinces, although some Canadian provinces use three letter abbreviations. (Please let me know if this rule applies in some similar manner with places in other parts of the world.)	Anchorage, AK is the capital of the largest state in the U.S.A. as measured by square mileage.
If an abbreviation is for a title of a person, the abbreviation is capitalized. If there are multiple parts in the abbreviation, the first letter of each abbreviated part is capitalized. For multiple abbreviations, separate the abbreviations with commas and capitalize each abbreviation.	Mr. Harris and Mrs. Jones were going to meet up with Dr. Ericson and Peter Klein, Esq. for lunch. Paula Townsend, M.D., Ph.D., is a knowledgeable and intelligent person.
In general, corporate names, copyrighted works, and trademarked items should have all parts of their names capitalized.	I like to eat Oreo cookies. My favorite drink is Coca Cola, even though everybody I know just calls it Coke.
However, certain specific items may have been named for marketing purposes which, as a result, may not follow standard capitalization rules.	Apple Computer, Inc. released the iMac, the iPhone, the iPod, and the iPad with great fanfare.
Titles of works of art, whether written or visual, must have the first word and all subsequent major words in the title capitalized. (While this is generally the case, this is one of those rules where different citation styles will result in different capitalization rules. If you are required to write following a particular writing citation style for academics, research, or publication, consult your citation style guide for the specific rules you should follow. Otherwise, this rule will be good enough for your usage.)	Have you read the book "Where the Red Fern Grows"? One of Van Gogh's most famous paintings is entitled "Starry Starry Night".
When somebody is speaking, the first letter of the first word of the sentence they are speaking is capitalized.	Jonas said, "This is the best restaurant I have eaten at in a long time."
However, sometimes it is desirable to break up what a person says to make it easier for the reader to understand or to provide for a visual pause in the thought process. In that case, do not capitalize the second part of what the person says if it is a continuation of the first part.	"It wasn't like that," Jack said, "at least not until my father died."
On the other hand, if it is a completely separate thought, treat each part as separate sentences. In that case, each sentence should be capitalized.	"I am going to the store," Samantha said. "Would you like me to pick anything up for you?"
In some rare situations when two people are talking to each other or relating a story to a third person, the conversation should be a guide for where to capitalize, particularly if one person is finishing a sentence which another person has begun.	Gloria and Stephanie couldn't hold back their excitement. Gloria said, "Did you see that airplane? It was as big as, as big as" "an elephant," Stephanie finished. "You should have seen it!"
When describing what a person is saying or what the person said, do not capitalize what was said if it was said indirectly within the context of the events being described.	I was walking on the sidewalk yesterday when a man came up to me and told me about the construction on the left hand side of the road.
When separating two main clauses with a semicolon instead of a period, the second main clause should not begin with a capital letter unless it begins with a proper noun. (For a review of clauses, see my earlier blog article, The Basics: Parts of a Sentence.)	A few years ago, the restaurant had long lines of people waiting to be seated; now, nearly all of the seats are empty.
In more lengthy documents, it is often the case that entire section headings are capitalized. Chart or table headings may also be capitalized to provide a visually clearer understanding of the data being presented. In some style guides, this is a strict rule, but in most cases, it is a stylistic choice of individual authors which is frequently employed.	RULES FOR PROPER CAPITALIZATION FOREWORD PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS

While I believe this list is fairly exhaustive, it is possible that I may have left out some specific rules for capitalization. If you think I have, please let me know and I will consider adding them.

©2013 Glenn Alperin

This article may be used for individual reference purposes. It may also be used by educators in a classroom. If this article is cited as a reference in another work, the author would appreciate being notified of the article's usage. Any for-profit usage not specifically agreed to by the author is prohibited.

The original web address of this article is http://alltherightwaystowrite.blogspot.com/2013/08/the-basics-capitalization.html

The Basics: Parts of a Sentence

As a writer, you actually have a lot of flexibility with how you write. At times, it is perfectly acceptable to break the rules provided that you have a good reason for doing so. Nonetheless, I believe that it is most important to learn all of the rules first, particularly since the rules provide clear guidelines for the use of proper punctuation. Once those rules are mastered, you will be in a better position to make appropriate choices about when and whether to break the rules. This article is written with the intent of describing the rules for writing sentences.

Basic Sentences

subject	This is what the sentence is about. The subjects of a sentence must do something. The subjects can be alive or inanimate.
object	This is the part of a sentence which has something done to it. As humans, we tend to think of objects as being inanimate, but in terms of grammar and sentence structure, this is often not the case. It is also worth noting that not all sentences will have at least one clear object.
verb	A verb is an action word. The verb is what the subject actually does.

The following examples demonstrate the use of subjects, objects, and verbs in basic sentences.

example sentences:	explanation
The boy ate the cookie.	In this sentence, "boy" is the subject. What did the boy do? He ate, so "ate" is the verb. What was eaten? What was acted upon? The cookie was eaten, so "cookie" is the object.
The piano is in the basement.	In this sentence, "piano" is the subject. What is the piano doing? It "is", which means it exists, so "is" is the verb. Where "is" the piano? What "is" the piano acting upon? The basement, so "basement" is the object.

In some cases, you may only have a subject and a verb.

example sentence:	explanation
The bear slept.	In this sentence, "bear" is the subject. What was the bear doing? The bear "slept", so "slept" is the verb. An object is not required.

An important thing to note about all of these examples so far is that they can all stand independently as sentences. However, when you string a collection of words together, this is not always going to be the case.

Phrases:

example phrases	explanation
walking along the narrow path	There is a subject, the narrow path, and a verb, walking. Why isn't this a sentence?
laughing at the situation	There is a similar problem here. Laughing is the verb, and situation is the subject.

So I told you before that a sentence must have a subject and a verb. This is true, but it turns out that it is a little more complicated than that.

The subject must be doing something. It is not enough for something to be done to the subject. "Walking along the narrow path" gives us an action, walking, which is being performed, but who or what is walking? Who or what is "laughing at the situation"? As a result, the preceding examples are all phrases. They can not stand independently on their own because no subject is performing a direct action.

So how do we get a sentence instead of a phrase?

Clauses:

A clause contains a subject which is directly performing an action. Okay, now that you may think I've told you everything there is to know about sentences, here are some examples of clauses.

example clauses	explanation
while the boy was walking along the narrow path	The subject is "the boy". The verb is "walking", and the boy is the one directly performing the act of walking. However, this still doesn't seem to feel like a sentence.
when her aunt asked for money	The subject is "her aunt". The verb is "asked", and the aunt is the one directly asking for the object "money". This also does not feel like a sentence.

So what is the problem here?

"Glenn, I thought you were going to tell me about making sentences! What did you forget to tell me now?"

There is only one more thing for me to tell you, and then you will have all of the tools you need to make proper sentences.

It turns out that there are two different kinds of clauses, subordinate clauses which are often called dependent clauses, and main clauses which are often called independent clauses.

type of clause	explanation of clause	example	explanation of example
subordinate clause	A subordinate clause contains a subject and a direct action, but it can not stand on its own. A subordinate clause depends upon a main clause to make it complete.	While the boy was running through the forest When the thunder and lightning finally stopped	These are incomplete thoughts. They can not stand on their own even though they each have a subject and a verb.
main clause	A main clause contains a subject and a direct action which the subject is performing. In addition, it is able to stand on its own.	A hungry bear came up and growled at him. All of the trees had been washed away.	These are complete thoughts. They stand on their own because the subject is directly performing an action.

Combining one or more subordinate clauses and a main clause, you can make some sophisticated sentences.

subordinate clause	main clause	complete sentence
While the boy was running through the forest,	a hungry bear came up and growled at him.	While the boy was running through the forest, a hungry bear came up and growled at him.
When the thunder and lighting finally stopped,	all of the trees had been washed away.	When the thunder and lighting finally stopped, all of the trees had been washed away.

Appositives:

An appositive is used to replace a noun. However, unlike a pronoun, it is used to specify and clarify the particular noun by adding additional detailed information about the noun. As a result, an appositive is a phrase which contains at least one noun. It is also possible to have more than one appositive describing the same noun. Appositives are placed either directly before or directly after the noun or phrase to which they refer. If an appositive is used in the middle of a sentence, it should be separated on both sides by commas from the rest of the sentence. If an appositive is used at the beginning or end of a sentence, it should be separated from the rest of the sentence with a single comma. In the examples below, I will put the appositive in bold and the noun that it clarifies in italics.

Bonnie and Clyde, the outlaws, are talked about even today.	There may have been more than one duo with people named Bonnie and Clyde. However, those alternatives, if there were any, were likely not outlaws. This helps us know which Bonnie and Clyde we are talking about.
Many people enjoy playing basketball, a sport which requires both speed and skill to play competitively.	This gives additional detailed information about the qualities necessary to play basketball.
While walking along the path at dusk, I saw three deer, one doe and two bucks, scamper off into the woods.	This specifies the sex of the particular deer I saw.
A man wiser than his age suggested, Sam quickly became worthy of great respect.	This provides additional information about Sam.
The car, a red Audi with Texas plates, sped down the street.	This provides specific information about the car.

Now that you have an understanding of the different parts of a sentence and the various parts of speech, you have some of the fundamental tools necessary to begin writing well.

©2013 Glenn Alperin

This article may be used for individual reference purposes. It may also be used by educators in a classroom. If this article is cited as a reference in another work, the author would appreciate being notified of the article's usage. Any other usage not specifically agreed to by the author is prohibited.

The original web address of this article is http://alltherightwaystowrite.blogspot.com/2013/08/the-basics-parts-of-sentence.html

The Basics: Parts of Speech

Writing can get to be a bit technical sometimes. Knowing the parts of speech will help you in all aspects of writing. When I write, I often read aloud what I have written, particularly when I am working with a challenging section of my compositions.  In areas that I find myself struggling, it is usually due to one of two errors: either the clarity of my writing is not precise, or the word order is incorrect.  Often, incorrect word order effects the clarity of my writing.

In general, while I try to write in a manner which is easily accessible to everybody, I also have to assume that you will know and understand some basic grammar terminology. This blog entry is an overview of the various parts of speech.

noun:

A noun is a person, place, or thing.

"Person" may be a specific person, such as Glenn Alperin (the author of this blog), or an occupation, such as a policeman, mother, or secretary. "Things" may be either tangible (stone, computer, pool, etc.) or intangible (love, taxes, normality, etc.). A "proper noun" is a noun which refers to a specific place or person by name. Proper nouns are always capitalized. When a noun refers to more than one person, place, or thing, it is called a "plural noun".

Example sentences:

The boy ate his lunch.
Alexander Graham Bell invented the telephone.
It was his anger which caused him to slam the door to the car.
The children screamed when they saw the spiders.

article:

English has three articles: "a", "an", and "the". "A" and "an" are used to refer to a singular noun which is not specific. Use "an" instead of "a" if the next word in the sentence begins with either a vowel or a vowel sound. Use "the" when referring to a specific noun regardless of whether the noun is singular or plural.

Example sentences:

How do you find an elephant?
An honest person will always tell the truth.
She picked up a habit of biting her nails.
The boy ran to the store.
She ran under a tree to avoid the torrential rain.

pronoun:

A pronoun is used to replace a noun in a sentence. I, you, he, she, we, they, it, and one are all pronouns.

The pronoun "one" is used to replace a singular person in a generic sense. As a result, it does not directly replace a noun, but it does replace a noun indirectly.

In the examples below, I am going to put the pronouns in bold and the nouns which they are replacing in italics.

Allison was very hungry. She ate all of the cookies.
It was one of the best concerts in the world.
People who believe they know everything are fools.
One must study in order to get good grades.

adjective:

An adjective describes a noun.

All colors can function as adjectives (red, blue, green, etc.) Tangible descriptive words (fat, tall, enormous) as well as intangible descriptive words (funny, serious, angry) are all adjectives.

Example sentences:

The quick girl outran the slow boy.
Every blue shirt looked unfashionable to him.

verb:

A verb is an action word. When something is happening, that is a verb being used. Walk, run, swim, and climb are all verbs.

Example sentences:

The robber demanded the money.
Joe goes on a walk.
They are having a good time at the party.

adverb:

While a verb describes an action, an adverb describes how that action is performed. Adverbs usually end with the letters "ly", but this is not always the case. Adverbs can also be used to describe other adverbs. Happily, angrily, hardly, very, and fast are all adverbs.

In the examples below, I will put the adverbs in bold and the verbs they are describing in italics.

The man walks silently through the forest.
The dog perked its ears up suddenly at the sound of thunder in the distance.
The robber quickly ran away.
The boy ran very fast.
When his father went for a walk, Brian went for a walk too.

preposition:

A preposition is used to describe a direction with respect to a noun. A preposition is placed either before the article or after the noun. Around, through, over, underneath, and below are all prepositions.

Example sentences:

Above the mountains, the hawk flew toward the west.
Quietly, the student went down the hall and into the principal's office.
Brett took the present to his friend's birthday party.

gerund:

A gerund is a word which would normally be a verb ending in "ing" but which functions as an adjective. The examples below will demonstrate the use of a gerund.

Example sentences:

The barking dog knew something was wrong.
Julia was just walking along when she saw a howling wolf cautiously approaching her.

conjunction:

A conjunction is a word which connects two separate words or parts of a sentence together. In English, the standard set of conjunctions include all of the following words: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so. These can be remembered using the mnemonic FANBOYS.

Example sentences:

Bob decided not to skip school for he knew he would get in trouble if he was caught.
Oliver ate the banana and Carol ate the pear.
She did not travel by airplane nor did she travel by boat.
We had planned to go to the beach but the weather forecast called for thunderstorms.
The funds have to be raised or the production will have to be canceled.
Everybody knew how the movie would end yet they all went to see it anyway.
The athletes wanted to gain some muscle mass so they began a regular exercise regimen.

These conjunctions express thought or ideas which are of equal weight on either side of the conjunction. There are also other conjunctions which may place more emphasis on one part of the sentence or the other. Some examples include the following words: because, finally, until, after, before.

interjection:

An interjection is a word or collection of words which is used to express emotion. Interjections are typically used alone and function as sentences all by themselves.

Examples sentences:

Yeehaw!
Ouch!
Psst!
Wow!
Oh no!

A specific note regarding parts of speech:

Depending on how the word is used, some words may be used as more than one part of speech. For example:

The red in the rainbow dazzled her eyes.	In this sentence, the word "red" is a noun. It is the specific color of red.
The girl was wearing a red blouse.	In this sentence, the word "red" is an adjective. It describes the blouse.

Advanced Parts of Speech

More advanced writers and grammarians may point out that there are other parts of speech I have not covered here. My intent here is not to be incomplete but to give only basic guidance which I may refer to in other blog entries. Therefore, I believe it is worthy of mentioning demonstratives and modifers here.

Demonstratives include all of the following words: "this", "that", "these", "those", "yon", and "yonder". Of course, English being the language that it is, there are technically three kinds of demonstratives: demonstrative pronouns, demonstrative determiners, and demonstrative adverbs. For an in-depth discussion of demonstratives, you can read a good overview, as discussed by Wikipedia, here.

Modifiers function as adjectives, but in a very particular way. You can read an overview of modifiers, as discussed by Wikipedia, here.

I believe that an in depth discussion of these two parts of speech may be overly complicating and I expect that it is likely that most writers will know and understand the usage of these parts of speech even if they are not familiar with them by name. If you disagree and choose to let me know, or if you think there are other parts of speech you think I should include in this list, I may either add to this list or write a separate discussion about the parts of speech I have not included here.

©2013 Glenn Alperin

This article may be used for individual reference purposes. It may also be used by educators in a classroom. If this article is cited as a reference in another work, the author would appreciate being notified of the article's usage. Any for-profit usage not specifically agreed to by the author is prohibited.

The original web address of this article is http://alltherightwaystowrite.blogspot.com/2013/07/the-basics-parts-of-speech.html

Are you a frustrated writer? Welcome to your cure!

If this looks a lot like you when you sit down to write, then you have come to the right place! "All the Right Ways to Write! Writing tips for writers of all levels" is the place to learn about writing styles, writing structure, dealing with writer's block, and the overall process of writing.

Who am I? What gives me the right to write this blog?
My name is Glenn Alperin. Some of my writing credentials include the following:

• writing and constructing an informal personal web site which describes prosopagnosia, a cognitive condition I have
• a "Letter Ghostwriting" business for which I am the only employee
• writing the foreword to the book Understanding Facial Recognition Difficulties in Children: Prosopagnosia Management Strategies for Parents and Professionals which was authored by Nancy Mindick
• being invited to blog on the web site of Psychology Today about my experiences of living with prosopagnosia as a result of having written the foreword to Nancy Mindick's book
• submitting an article which was accepted for publication in The Metro free daily newspaper
• successfully tutoring a variety of students where writing has been the focus of many of those tutoring sessions

With my vast array of writing experience and my ability to effectively communicate the process of writing to my students, I can think of no better person to write this blog than me. I hope you agree. I hope you find this blog both helpful and interesting in your effort to become a better writer by learning all the right ways to write.

Image courtesy of Wisdom Talks.

©2013 Glenn Alperin